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Description    UNFORMATTED ATTACHMENT PREVIEW Name: ___________________________________________ Date: _______________________ Reading and Analyzing a Scientific Journal Article Use the following questions to help you work through the posted journal article. You will then complete the write-up assignment (on page 2 of this document). You will submit this sheet with your answers typed along with your write up. 1. Abstract a. What do the authors state is the purpose or hypothesis that they are testing in the study? (Write down the exact sentence where the authors describe what they are doing in the study. Include quotation marks.) b. What is the current gap in knowledge that the authors are trying to address with their study? c. What experimental tools or measurements did the authors use in their methods to test their hypothesis. d. What do the authors say are the major conclusions or findings of the study? Include quotation marks where appropriate. e. What are the significant contributions of this study to the scientific literature at large? 2. Introduction a. What is the big picture problem that led the authors to study this particular research question? (Impact/Relevance…Why should the reader care about the study?) b. What have previous studies demonstrated in relation to the big picture problem? c. What are the specific gaps in the current knowledge that the authors are trying to address? d. What is the experimental organism being used? What are its advantages and disadvantages? (Why did the authors choose this organism?) e. What do the authors say are the major conclusions or findings of the study? Include quotation marks and page numbers where appropriate. Name: ___________________________________________ Date: _______________________ 3. Results a. Figure 2a & 2b (section 3.1) i. What is the experimental question being asked? ii. What is being measured? iii. What are the controls and experimental groups? (ambient temperature is 14ºC and pCO2 is 365uatm; 2100 predicted temperature is 21.5ºC and pCO2 is 1050uatm) iv. What are the key results of the figure? v. What is the conclusion of the figure? b. Figure 3a (section 3.4) i. What is the experimental question being asked? ii. What is being measured? iii. What are the controls and experimental groups? (ambient temperature is 14ºC and pCO2 is 365uatm; 2100 predicted temperature is 21.5ºC and pCO2 is 1050uatm) iv. What are the key results of the figure? v. What is the conclusion of the figure? 4. Discussion a. What do the authors claim are the three “fundamental insights” emerging from this work? b. Shell integrity and growth (section 4.1) i. What are the key conclusions? ii. What do the authors suggest is the relevance of their findings? iii. What areas of future study resulted from this work? c. Energy reserves and metabolism (section 4.2) i. What are the key conclusions? ii. What do the authors suggest is the relevance of their findings? iii. What areas of future study resulted from this work? d. Based on your understanding of the figures, do you agree or disagree with the authors conclusions? Write-up Assignment: Reading and Analyzing a Scientific Journal Article In your own words write a maximum of two pages (double spaced) to summarize the article you were assigned. The write-up should summarize the article that you read. Be sure your summary answers the following questions but should NOT just be direct answers to these questions. What is the purpose of the study? What are the major results? What is/are the key experiments/figure from the article? What is/are the main conclusions? Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology, Part A 240 (2020) 110579 Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology, Part A journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/cbpa Ocean acidi?cation and warming e?ects on the physiology, skeletal properties, and microbiome of the purple-hinge rock scallop? T ? Lindsay Almaa,b, , Karin E. Kramb, Gordon W. Holtgrievea, Ashley Barbarinob, Courtney J. Fiamengoa,b, Jacqueline L. Padilla-Gamiñoa,b a b School of Aquatic and Fishery Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98105, USA Department of Biology, California State University, Dominguez Hills, Carson, CA 90747, USA A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T Keywords: Bivalve Multiple stressors Fatty acids Shell strength CT scan Metagenomics Ocean acidi?cation and increased ocean temperature from elevated atmospheric carbon dioxide can signi?cantly in?uence the physiology, growth and survival of marine organisms. Despite increasing research e?orts, there are still many gaps in our knowledge of how these stressors interact to a?ect economically and ecologically important species. This project is the ?rst to explore the physiological e?ects of high pCO2 and temperature on the acclimation potential of the purple-hinge rock scallop (Crassadoma gigantea), a widely distributed marine bivalve, important reef builder, and potential aquaculture product. Scallops were exposed to two pCO2 (365 and 1050 ?atm) and temperature (14 and 21.5 °C) conditions in a two-factor experimental design. Simultaneous exposure to high temperature and high pCO2 reduced shell strength, decreased outer shell density and increased total lipid content. Despite identical diets, scallops exposed to high pCO2 had higher content of saturated fatty acids, and lower content of polyunsaturated fatty acids suggesting reorganization of fatty acid chains to sustain basic metabolic functions under high pCO2. Metagenomic sequencing of prokaryotes in scallop tissue revealed treatment di?erences in community composition between treatments and in the presence of genes associated with microbial cell regulation, signaling, and pigmentation. Results from this research highlight the complexity of physiological responses for calcifying species under global change related stress and provide the ?rst insights for understanding the response of a bivalve's microbiome under multiple stressors. 1. Introduction Anthropogenic activities have exponentially increased the carbon dioxide concentration in the atmosphere since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution. Increased CO2 contributes to the “greenhouse” e?ect which causes the atmosphere and oceans to warm. Higher levels of CO2 in the atmosphere lead to higher dissolution of CO2 into the ocean. Increased CO2 dissolution into the ocean can change carbon chemistry, making water more acidic and reducing calcium carbonate availability which is critical for many marine calci?ers (Doney et al., 2009). As the Anthropocene progresses and carbon dioxide levels continue to increase, it is vital that we understand how di?erent stressors associated with increased levels of pCO2, such as ocean warming and ocean acidi?cation, may interact (or not) and impact the performance of marine species. Identifying limits of physiological ?exibility under multiple stressors will help to develop models to realistically predict how species will perform, allocate energy, adapt, and survive in an increasingly changing environment (Sebens et al., 2018). This will help us to quantify tolerance limits and determine under what circumstances the stressors act additively, antagonistically, or synergistically (Gunderson et al., 2015; Todgham and Stillman, 2013). Consequences of decreased physiological and organismal performance metrics in marine organisms due to changing ocean conditions have the potential to negatively impact associated food webs and local human economies. Previous studies have shown that ocean warming and acidi?cation usually interact additively or synergistically to reduce marine invertebrate ?tness. In bivalves, ocean acidi?cation can narrow the thermal tolerance range, resulting in a higher susceptibility to extreme temperatures and impairment in organismal performance (Schalkhausser et al., 2013). Hard shell clams exposed in the laboratory to increased pCO2 and thermal stress lead to higher organismal energy ? This article is part of a special issue entitled: Mechanisms of biological sensitivity and resistance to a rapidly changing ocean, edited by: Dr. Logan Cheryl, Dr. Evans Tyler and Dr. Mike Hedrick ? Corresponding author at: School of Aquatic and Fishery Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98105, USA. E-mail address: lalma@uw.edu (L. Alma). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cbpa.2019.110579 Received 2 May 2019; Received in revised form 5 September 2019; Accepted 11 September 2019 Available online 16 September 2019 1095-6433/ © 2019 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology, Part A 240 (2020) 110579 L. Alma, et al. integrity and microbiome of C. gigantea. We sought to address the following questions: (i) To what extent are shell strength and skeletal density a?ected by multiple global change stressors in C. gigantea? (ii) What are the physiological impacts of simultaneous exposure of multiple stressors in terms of energy reserves and allocation? (iii) How is the microbiome of C. gigantea a?ected by exposure to ocean warming and ocean acidi?cation? Results from this study provide insights into physiological tolerance of C. gigantea when subjected to near-future OA and OW conditions and long and short-term consequences to their ?tness. demands to maintain basic metabolism (Matoo et al., 2013). Decreased ?tness was observed in the common cockle which were exposed simultaneously to high pCO2 and high temperature, where energy uptake and shell strength was reduced, and respiration increased (Ong et al., 2017). In sea urchin larvae, simultaneous exposure to increased temperature and pCO2 signi?cantly reduced larval metabolism (PadillaGamiño et al., 2013). Marine bivalves are ecologically and economically important calci?ers that are currently being severely impacted by climate change related stressors (Barton et al., 2015; Talmage and Gobler, 2011). Previous studies have shown that near future ocean warming (OW) and ocean acidi?cation (OA) levels predicted by year 2100 will negatively alter bivalve metabolism (Ivanina et al., 2013; Matoo et al., 2013; Timmins-Schi?man et al., 2014), decrease shell integrity and impair biomineralization (Wright et al., 2018; Duckworth and Peterson, 2013; Mackenzie et al., 2014a; Rühl et al., 2017), and cause the organism to be more susceptible to disease (Burge et al. 2014, Mackenzie et al., 2014b, Fuhrmann et al., 2019). To date, however, many knowledge gaps remain, speci?cally in the linkages between cellular metabolism, energy allocation and stress tolerance (Sokolova et al., 2012). Another important gap in our understanding is how a bivalve's microbiome will respond to OA and OW, and if virulent microbes in shell?sh will become more prevalent under global change scenarios. Studies on shell?sh microbial responses to single stressors have just begun to emerge; Asplund et al. (2014) found that a four-month exposure of blue mussels (Mytilus edulis) to OA caused a higher incidence of the virulent microbe Vibrio tubiashii; and Fuhrmann et al. (2019) resolved that paci?c oysters, Crassostrea gigas, exposed to OA treatment had a lower survival rate when exposed to Ostreid herpesvirus type I than those who were not subjected to OA. The purple-hinge rock scallop Crassadoma gigantea (Fig. 1a, b) (Gray 1825, formerly Hinnites multirugosus, Gale 1928) is widely distributed across the North American Paci?c Coast from Southern Alaska to Baja California, Mexico. They can be found from lower intertidal to 80 m depth (Bourne, 1987; Whyte et al., 1990). C. gigantea are ecosystem engineers – they form the foundation of reef structures by clustering on rocks, pilings, and oil rigs and provide habitat for thousands of organisms (Fig. 1c) (Laurén, 2008). Unlike other scallop species which have the ability to swim, C. gigantea permanently attach to hard substrate, making it very di?cult to actively avoid unfavorable ocean conditions (Culver et al., 2006; RaLonde, 2012). C. gigantea is of interest in the aquaculture industry and is considered a seafood delicacy due to its large, sweet-tasting adductor muscle. Despite their ecological importance and growing interest in the aquaculture industry, to the authors' knowledge, there has not been any published research involving the impacts of global change on this species. These scallops are, and will further be, subject to OA and temperature stress throughout their native range along the California Current Large Marine Ecosystem (CCLME), which may a?ect the reefs they sustain and their future as a harvested aquaculture species (Filgueira et al., 2016). Due to the topographic and geographic nature of the CCLME, this area has already experienced increased upwelling (lowering the pCO2 levels) and warming events. This was exempli?ed during the marine heatwave of 2013–2016 where we observed high temperature anomalies in the CCLME of 1.5 °C to 6.2 °C (Bond et al., 2015; Di Lorenzo and Mantua, 2016). Studies predict that the CCLME will begin to experience summertime aragonite undersaturation within the optimal habitat depths of C. gigantea by year 2050 (Gruber et al., 2012; Hofmann et al., 2014). In this study we used a multidisciplinary approach to understand the physiological response of C. gigantea under ocean warming and ocean acidi?cation. Stressful conditions may cause organisms to reallocate their energy to sustain basic metabolic functions and this in turn can compromise other processes such as calci?cation, immunity, or growth. This study provides the ?rst insights into the interactive e?ects of ocean warming and ocean acidi?cation on the physiology, shell 2. Methods and materials 2.1. Specimen collection and experimental conditions Mature adult C. gigantea were collected by SCUBA divers (scienti?c permit No. SC-9758) at 23–25 m depth on August 1, 2016. Collection site was located at Eureka Oil Rig, o?shore of Huntington Beach, California (33.56405° N, 118.1158° W). Scallop shell height ranged from 4.1 to 17 cm with an average of 9.5 cm ± 2.7 cm (SD), and shell width range from 15.1 to 3.4 cm with an average of 9.4 cm ± 2.2 cm (SD). Scallops are estimated to be 5 years old on average based on a growth chart published by MacDonald et al. (1991). Following collection, scallops were scraped clean of epibionts and transported into saltwater tanks within 1 h of collection. Scallops were measured and labeled with Milliput epoxy putty. The organisms were then placed in eight 60 L tanks ?lled with arti?cial sea water (n = 7–8 per tank) and allowed to acclimate to ambient conditions (14 ± 0.02 °C and pCO2 ~365 ?atm) for one week prior to experimental treatments. Scallops were fed using Shell?sh Diet 1800 (Reed Mariculture, Campbell, CA: 40% Isochrysis galbana, 25% Tetraselmis, 20% Thalassiosira pseudonana, and 15% Pavlova lutheri). The room was kept on a 14:10 h light: dark cycle and salinity was held constant at 33 ± 1 PSU. Following acclimation, scallops were held for six weeks in one of four treatments: (1) 21.5 °C, 1050 ?atm, (2) 21.5 °C, 365 ?atm, (3) 14 °C, 1050 ?atm, and (4) 14 °C, 365 ?atm, which represent factorial combinations of ambient conditions and predictions for year 2100 (IPCC, 2013; Stocker et al., 2013). pCO2 was controlled in each tank by injecting a slow stream of CO2 gas to a select threshold via a solenoid regulator system in accordance with the Standard Operating Procedure (SOP) for Ocean CO2 Measurements (Dickson and Sabine, 2007). All tanks were controlled for temperature individually using a closed loop heating and chilling system. Each treatment was performed in replicate, and each tank was completely independent of one another, with separate chillers, heaters, and CO2 systems (Appendix S1, Fig. S1). Water samples were collected weekly and poisoned with 100 ?L of saturated mercuric chloride (HgCl2) in accordance with Dickson and Sabine (2007). Samples were tested for alkalinity using 2320 B open cell titration method (APHA 2012). Temperature, salinity, and carbonate chemistry (calculated using CO2calc software, USGS, Robbins et al., 2010) of seawater used in experimental treatments can be found in Appendix S1, At the end of the six-week experiment, scallops were removed from their tanks (5–7 individuals per tank), dissected, weighed for wet weight, and samples of ctenidia (gill), adductor muscle, gut, and remaining viscera were ?ash frozen with liquid nitrogen and stored at ?80 °C. Shells were cleaned of any tissue using a soft cloth and stored dry. 2.2. Shell strength analysis All shells (n = 14 individuals per treatment) were rehydrated for 24 h in seawater before performing shell strength tests (Ikejima et al., 2003). Each shell was marked using a paint marker at four equally spaced points across its length. A Universal Testing Machine (Instron, model 5585H) was ?tted with a 3.9 mm cylindrical steel punch and 2 Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology, Part A 240 (2020) 110579 L. Alma, et al. Fig. 1. (a) C. gigantea shell, (b) andinterior (~15 cm), (c) C. gigantea serves host to epibionts (~7 cm). (Micro-CT) scanner (Skyscan model 1173, Burker, Belgium) to determine relative shell density. Dried shells (n = 14 per treatment) were scanned at an X-ray resolution of 1120 × 1120 using a 1 mm aluminum ?lter, a voltage of 65 or 70 kV, and a current of 114 or 123 ?A for thinner and thicker shells, respectively. Two phantom rods (SP-4003 Burker, Belgium) of known volumetric density (0.25 and 0.75 g/cm3) were scanned alongside shells for calibration purposes. Horizontal 2-D stacked images were re-projected into a 3-D image using Burker's NRecon software based on a modi?ed Feldkamp's algorithm (Feldkamp et al., 2008). To measure relative shell mineral density (g/cm3), each 3-D image was calibrated by isolating phantom rods into a region of interest (ROI) and entering their known densities and attenuation coe?cients (mm?1) into a calibration algorithm within Burker's CT Analyzer v.1.16 software. Ten vertical 2-D cross sections were randomly selected throughout the length of each shell, and the total shell density was measured by tracing a ROI around the perimeter of the shell (Chatzinikolaou et al., 2017; Queirós et al., 2015). To compare the density of the periostracum (rough outer layer of the shell exposed to the water) to the overall shell density, 15 pixels were selected as the ROI along the outside of the shell (Papageorgiou and Schmidbaur, 2014; Rühl et al., 2017). The ratio of periostracum to total shell density corresponded to the relative dissolution of the outer shell. 4.76 mm die (Carnarius et al., 1996; Ikejima et al., 2003; Wilkie and Bishop, 2012). Shells were removed from the saltwater and immediately placed onto the stage, with the inner side facing upward on a marked point and held perpendicular to the Instron plate. The crosshead was lowered onto the scallop shells at 5 mm s?1, and the force (N) needed to puncture the shell was recorded using Bluehill Software (v.2) (Illinois Tool Works Inc., IL, USA). The puncture force (N) was averaged among 8 puncture points per individual, the 4 punctures made in each shell and in both shell vales of each individual. Shell thickness was measured at the eight marked points using a digital outside caliper gauge (0.01 mm accuracy). Shell strength at each point was calculated using the following formula (Carnarius et al., 1996; Ikejima et al., 2003; Tyler, 1961): S= F ?dt where S is shell strength measured in megapascals (N mm?2), F is the maximum penetrating force (N), t is the shell thickness (mm), and d is the diameter of the punch (mm) multiplied by pi to get the circumference of the punch. Shell thickness and maximum force for each treatment were correlated using a linear regression (So?e Grefsrud and Strand, 2006; Wilkie and Bishop, 2012). 2.3. Micro-CT scanning Shells were scanned using a micro computerized tomography 3 Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology, Part A 240 (2020) 110579 L. Alma, et al. replicate as a random e?ect and temperature and pCO2 as ?xed e?ects using the lmer function from the library lme4 (Bates et al., 2014). Hypotheses testing was conducted based on the ?xed e?ects only using a two-way ANOVA. Post-hoc Tukey HSD tests (corrected for multiple comparisons) was performed to determine di?erences among treatments. A Shapiro-Wilk test was performed to assess normality of the data, and a Levene's test was performed to con?rm homogeneity of variance. If needed, values of analysis were log transformed to achieve normality assumptions before the model was run. A non-metric multidimensional scaling analysis (NMDS) was performed using metaMDS Bray-Curtis dissimilarity and oridhull functions within vegan library in R (Oksanen et al., 2013) and was used to visualize distribution of FAs and microbes among treatments (Galloway et al., 2015; TimminsSchi?man et al., 2014). FA's and bacterial community di?erences among treatments were analyzed using a ?xed factor permutational multivariate analysis (PERMANOVA) using R vegan adonis function with 10,000 random permutations of the residuals under the reduced model (Lamb et al., 2017). Shannon index of microbes was calculated using the R vegan diversity function. Both Sorenson and Bray-Curtis dissimilartiy indices were calculated using the “beta-pair” or “bray.part” function of the R betapart package (Baselga and Orme, 2012) and the vegan betadisper function. 2.4. Total lipid and fatty acid analysis Ctenidia and adductor muscle tissue were freeze dried for 48 h and ground using a ball mill (Soudant et al., 1999; Tocher and Sargent, 1984; Whyte et al., 1990). A microbalance (sensitivity 10 ?g) was used to measure 15 g of ground adductor mussel and ctenidia powder within pre-weighed aluminum tins. Total lipids (n = 11–14 per treatment, 5–7 per tank) were extracted in accordance with methods from Bligh and Dyer (1959). In short, two puri?cation cycles of a 2:1 chloroform/ methanol solution and ultrapure water were performed to separate the lower chloroform phase containing the lipids from the rest of the tissue. Total lipids were determined gravimetrically by drying and weighing a subsample. The relative composition of 14–24 carbon chain fatty acids (FA) of each individual was determined by transmethylation of dry ctenidia lipid samples by acid-catalyzed esteri?cation with a 1% sulfuric acid in methanol incubated at 50 °C for 16 h and extracted into fatty acid methyl esters (FAME) in accordance with methods from Christie (1998). FAMEs were analyzed using a ?ame ionization detector gas chromatograph (GC) (HP 6890, Agilent DB-23 column 30 m length, 0.25 mm diameter, 0.15 ?m ?lm thickness), and output chromatograph peaks were identi?ed with a FA standard mixture (37-component FAME, Supelco, Bellefonte PA) (Galloway et al., 2015). An individual's FA pro?le was interpreted using a printed output chromatograph and calculated by normalizing each FA peak area by the sum of all FA peak areas. 3. Results 3.1. Shell strength 2.5. Microbial enrichment and DNA extraction To examine microbial taxonomy and functions, ctenidia and gut tissue (n = 3 per treatment and tissue) were homogenized using a sterile disposable mortar and 1.7 mL micro-centrifuge tube. During homogenization 500 mL NaCl saline (8.5%) bu?er was added to the tissue. The homogenates were centrifuged at 1000 RPM for 5 min to pellet the large tissue debris. The supernatant was transferred to a new micro-centrifuge tube and centrifuged at 10,000 RPM for 20 min to pellet bacterial cells (Oliveira et al., 2013). Genomic DNA was extracted from this pellet with the DNeasy Blood and Tissue kit (Qiagen Valencia, CA, USA) following the Gram-positive bacteria protocol. Both, high pCO2 and high temperature decreased shell strength (p < .001, p = .011, Fig. 2a, Table 1). At ambient temperature (14 °C), shell strength decreased by 24% under high pCO2 whereas at high temperature (21.5 °C), shell strength decreased by 19% under high pCO2 (Fig. 2a). The interaction between pCO2 and temperature was not signi?cant, indicating no synergistic e?ect (p = .606, Table 1). Linear regression analyses revealed that the force needed to puncture the shell was positively correlated with shell thickness (p < .001, Fig. 2b). In this and all other analysis, no signi?cant di?erences between replicate tanks were observed. Additional variance from multiple tanks was estimated to be zero, indicating no e?ect of tank on the response variables. 2.6. Illumina metagenomic sequencing and bioinformatic analysis 3.2. Scallop growth Extracted genomic DNA was prepared for sequencing using the Illumina NexteraXT library preparation kit. Prepared libraries were normalized and pooled and sequenced on the Illumina HiSeq 4000, with 150 bp paired end reads. Quality of sequencing reads were assessed with FastQC (Andrews and Bioinformatics, 2010). Taxonomic and functional classi?cations were run using the InsideDNA cloudbased platform (https://insidedna.io). Reads were classi?ed against the bacteria NCBI-database at the species and family level using the classify_metagenome script from CLARK 1.2.4 (Ounit et al., 2015). Wet weigh of scallops did not change between treatments after 6 weeks (p = .88). We performed shell length and width measurements before and after the experiment and we did not detect any growth during the 6-week experiment (on a millimeter scale). 3.3. Micro-CT scanning DIAMOND 0.9.18 (Buch?nk et al., 2014) was used to align sequences against nr (non-redundant protein sequences) database using the script diamond blastx –db nr.dmnd. MEGAN 6.10.10 (Huson et al., 2007) with SEED (Overbeek et al., 2014) database was used to get functional classi?cation using the script daa2rma -a2seed acc2seedMay2015XX.abin. Micro-CT scanning results revealed no signi?cant di?erences in overall shell density between treatments (p = .294, p = .793 for pCO2 and temperature respectively, Table 1). However, there was a 14.6% reduction in the ratio of periostracum density:total shell density in scallops acclimated to high pCO2 (p < .001 Fig. 2c, Table 1), suggesting that dissolution may occur primarily in this upper layer as opposed to the deeper layers of the shell. The interaction term between pCO2 and temperature was not signi?cant, indicating no synergistic e?ect (p = .355, Table 1). Additional variance from multiple tanks was estimated to be zero, indicating no e?ect of tank on the response variables. 2.8. Statistical analysis 3.4. Total lipid and fatty acid analysis Statistical analyses on shell strength, CT-scans, lipid, FAs, and bacterial metagenomics were performed in R Version 3.5.3. We applied a linear mixed e?ects model for each response variable with tank Total lipid content was 30.6% higher in the ctenidia than the adductor muscle (p < .001). Increased pCO2 had a signi?cant e?ect on lipids in both ctenidia and adductor muscle (p < .001). Total lipid 2.7. Functional annotation 4 Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology, Part A 240 (2020) 110579 L. Alma, et al. 5000 25 (a) bc (b) 21.5°C/1050 µatm 21.5°C/365 µatm 14°C/1050 µatm 14°C/365 µatm 4000 ab ab Maximum load (N) Mega Pascals (N/mm2) 20 a 15 10 3000 2000 2 R = 0.41 2 R = 0.52 2 R = 0.60 2 R = 0.62 1000 5 0 0 2 4 6 8 10 Fig. 2. Values given as means ± S.E. (n = 14 individuals per treatment). Di?erent letters indicate signi?cant di?erences (p < .05). (a) Force needed to puncture a shell at 4 points across the length, normalized by thickness of the shell (mega pascals), (b) Relationship between shell thickness (mm) and maximum load (N) needed to puncture C. gigantea shells. The force needed to puncture the shell was positively correlated with shell thickness. Each point represents one puncture point, and each shell was punctured 4 times and averaged for statistical analysis. (c) Ratio between C. gigantea periostracum and overall shell density after six-week exposure to temperature and pH treatments. (d) A rock scallop shell reprojected and colored using micro-CT imaging and software. 12 Shell thickness (mm) 0 Periostracum/Total Density (g/cm³) 1.2 (d) (c) b b 1 ab a 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 1 cm 1050 µatm 365 µatm 21.5°C 1050 µatm 365 µatm 14°C content was not signi?cantly a?ected by temperature, nor the interaction term in either tissue type (Fig. 3a, Table 1). Additional variance from multiple tanks was estimated to be zero, indicating no e?ect of tank on the response variables. Despite identical diets, twenty-?ve individual fatty acid peaks were isolated in the GC pro?les of scallop ctenidia (Table 2). Eight FAs had signi?cant di?erences between treatments in the three major classes: saturated fatty acids (SFA), monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA), and polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA). FAs that had signi?cant di?erences (p < .05) between treatments were pentadecanoic acid 15:0 (derived from gut dwelling bacteria), iso-16:0 (derived from gut dwelling bacteria), 18:0 (stearic acid), 20:0 (gadoleic acid), 16:1?7 (palmitoleic acid), 16:2?4 (9,12-hexadecadienoic acid), 18:2?6 (linoleic acid), and 22:5?6 (Docosapentaenoic acid). NMDS analysis of ctenidia FAs (Bray Curtis stress = 0.079) showed high similarity between the samples from the control group (14 °C/365 ?atm) and low similarities among samples exposed to high temperature (21.5 °C) (Fig. 3b). A PERMANOVA comparing the diversity of FA biomarkers between treatments revealed no signi?cant interaction of pCO2 and temperature (p = .183, R2 = 0.0312). Scallops exposed to high pCO2 had 31.7% and 14.7% less PUFAs (21 °C and 14 °C, respectively) compared to the ambient pCO2 treatment. Table 1 Summary of Two-Way ANOVA statistics used in this study. Bolded terms indicate a signi?cant di?erence (p < .05). df Mean Sq F value p Shell strength pCO2 Temperature Temperature: pCO2 Residuals 1 1 1 52 0.171 0.0867 0.0001 0.01249 13.706 6.943 0.0154 < 0.001 0.0110 0.902 Total shell density pCO2 Temperature Temperature: pCO2 Residuals 1 1 1 50 0.0431 0.00265 0.0894 1.123 0.0693 2.336 0.294 0.793 0.133 Periostracum:total shell density pCO2 1 Temperature 1 Temperature: pCO2 1 Residuals 50 0.0244 0.00933 0.014 0.0161 15.179 0.580 0.871 < 0.001 0.451 0.355 Total lipids gill pCO2 Temperature Temperature: pCO2 Residuals 1 1 1 48 0.115 0.0347 0.0322 0.0055 21.678 6.532 6.057 < 0.001 0.0609 0.0675 Total lipids adductor pCO2 Temperature Temperature: pCO2 Residuals 1 1 1 50 0.349 0.00281 0.0323 0.0302 11.536 0.0931 1.0686 < 0.001 0.761 0.306 3.5. Microbial analysis We analyzed changes in the bacterial community of scallops by performing metagenomic sequencing of both ctenidia and gut tissues. Fig. 4 shows bacterial diversity of each family in both tissue types. Most samples have a similar bacterial community, however there are a few samples that have one dominant taxon. Overall, we can de?ne several 5 Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology, Part A 240 (2020) 110579 L. Alma, et al. % Total lipids 12 a A Fig. 3. (a) Percent total lipids in ctenidia (solid) and adductor muscle (shaded), analyzed from each treatment. Values given as means ± SE (n = 11–14 individuals per treatment). Di?erent letters indicate signi?cant di?erences (lowercase for ctenidia, uppercase for adductor muscle) (p < .05). (b) Nonmetric multidimensional scaling (NMDS) analysis comparing fatty acid pro?les of ctenidia. (b) Ctenidia Adductor Muscle 0.2 16 b b b B B B 8 NMDS2 0 0.1 (a) -0.1 4 0 Stress= 0.079 n = 51 1050 µatm 365 µatm 1050 µatm 365 µatm 21.5°C -0.06 -0.04 -0.02 0 0.02 21.5°C/1050 µatm NMDS1 21.5°C/365 µatm 14°C/1050 µatm 14°C/365 µatm 14 °C 0.04 0.06 treatments, Vibrionaceae was the dominant family in individuals exposed to 21.5 °C, while those exposed to the 14 °C treatment had the highest occurrence of Propionibacteriaceae. Vibrionaceae made up an average of 18% of the bacterial community in the 21.5 °C treatments when compared to individuals exposed to 14 °C where Vibrionaceae prevailing bacterial families present in every individual including Propionibacteriaceae, Mycoplasmataceae, Flavobacteriaceae, Shewanellaceae, Pasteurellaceae, Streptococcaceae, Alteromonadaceae, Rhodobacteraceae, Enterobacteriaceae, and Mycobacteriaceae; each of these families made up at least 2% of total microbial diversity. Within Table 2 Total lipids expressed as mg/g of total ctenidia tissue dry weight. Fatty acids reported as normalized values from % of total FA peak areas identi?ed (mean ± s.d.). Trace amounts of FAs < 0.5% of total omitted (—). Di?erent letters indicate signi?cant di?erences, corrected for multiple comparisons (p < .05). Bolded fatty acids signi?cant di?erences between treatments (Tukey HSD). 14 °C/365 ?atm 14 °C/1050 ?atm 21.5 °C/365 ?atm 21.5 °C/1050 ?atm n = 14 n = 11 n = 12 n = 14 c Total Lipid (mg/g DW) 98.3 ± 4.2 Saturat

over 1 billion less than today. Any effort to influence fertility rates

Description UNFORMATTED ATTACHMENT PREVIEW BSM823 Capstone: Short Research Proposal Please note that this Short Research Proposal is not formally assessed. It will help your tutor to see your research area and provide you with initial feedback. Follow the maximum word counts in each section. Name: Degree programme: Date: Student number: Working title: Research aim and objectives Summary and justification of research topic (No more than 250 words: provide a summary of your proposed research and consider why the work is of importance and the potential contribution the work can make to the literature) Brief overview of the literature (No more than 300 words: identify some of the main literature that may have recommended further research/gaps in this topic) Consideration of the methods and data appropriate for research design (No more than 50 words) BSM823 Capstone: Short Research Proposal Please note that this Short Research Proposal is not formally assessed. It will help your tutor to see your research area and provide you with initial feedback. Follow the maximum word counts in each section. Name: James Cunningham Student number: 7654321 Degree programme: MSc International Business Management Date: 21.01.2023 Working title: Community and Resilience among Micro and Small Businesses of the hospitality sector Research aim and objectives The research aim is to explore the role of community among micro and small businesses to understand how resilience is created and sustained through small business collectives. The objectives of the extended research proposal are: 1. Understand the characteristics of inter-business connections in building a business community. 2. Explore the role of community embeddedness in informing the behaviours of micro and small businesses in the locale. 3. Demonstrate the impact of business resilience and sustainability fostered through community connection. 4. Highlight the specific role that context plays, both spatial and sectoral, in how a business collective operates. Summary and justification of research topic (No more than 250 words: provide a summary of your proposed research and consider why the work is of importance and the potential contribution the work can make to the literature) This research is in response to a topical issue of the pandemic and its’ effect on the hospitality sector, specifically micro and small businesses who do not have large resources such as larger business to aid them through the loss of business. The research looks at how the community has helped micro and small businesses stay operative, such as promotion in social media or customers opting to support small businesses. Recently, the Aberdeen Backyard Beach Collective (ABBC) was created by micro and small business owners in Aberdeen to support each other and create a medium to be able to offer their products to the public. Adekola and Clelland (2020) observed that the relationship between small business resilience and community resilience has remained an under-researched aspect of community resilience. Their research in Scotland in rural communities found that businesses play advisory and advocacy roles, make financial and material contributions to local community resilience activities and contribute to quick community recovery through various dimensions of corporate social responsibility activities. However, Pike et al. (2010) have described resilience as a concept, as fragmented and lacking theoretical validation. In addition, most extant resilience research focuses on larger organisations rather than SMEs, as found by Herbane (2010), and Sullivan-Taylor and Branicki (2011). Therefore, this proposed research addresses a gap in the literature, when more understanding is needed. Brief overview of the literature (No more than 300 words: identify some of the main literature that may have recommended further research/gaps in this topic) Adekola and Clelland (2020) suggest that where research has explored the role played by small business in the resilience of places or communities, it has tended to focus on resilience to economic shocks or longer-term changes (such as ageing populations) as opposed to natural hazards or emergencies. This indicates an opportunity to explore business resilience in relation to community resilience to the COVID-19 pandemic outbreak which was an unforeseen phenomenon that has affected the world’s population. Cutter, Burton and Emrich (2010) state there are five dimensions of community resilience: social, economic, institutional, infrastructure and community competence. According to Aldrich and Meyer (2015) community resilience is the collective ability of a localised area to 22 contend with challenges and return to normality through effective cooperation. Aldrich (2010) explains practitioners have under-utilised social cohesion and social networks in disaster planning and management. Meyer (2013) opines that resilience research and disaster management practices fail to fully accept social capital as a fundamental factor due to the lack of agreed metrics for social capital. Furthering this, Torres, Marshall and Sydnor’s (2019) research investigates small business resilience through the lens of social capital and found that receiving support from the community is what drove both objective and subjective business resilience post-Hurricane Katrina. They elaborate that SB owners with ties to the community and institutions are better prepared when facing a natural disaster and thus community resilience is a key skill for long-term sustainability. Natural disasters impact SBs in two ways; as business owners and as local inhabitants, providing an extreme test or business operations (Sauser et al. 2017). Most disaster literature focuses on the financial and physical resources fostering resilience; however, recent literature has highlighted the importance of community networks which can help SBs to adapt and respond to disasters (Aldrich 2012). Consideration of the methods and data appropriate for research design (No more than 50 words) It is likely that an interpretivist approach would be best suited to the research area. Initially, interviews with small business owners involved in the ABBC, and then focus groups with community members could be appropriate in the research design. Generating qualitative data to explore the complex areas of community relations and resilience. 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Description    UNFORMATTED ATTACHMENT PREVIEW Question1: What is the net energy yield for producing oil in 1954? Enter your answer here: ________ What is the net energy yield for producing oil in 2007? Enter your answer here: _______ According to these calculations, the net energy yield for conventional oil has A: decreased, B: remained the same, C: increased over time. As a result of these changes in net energy yield, oil companies have been trying to augment supplies of conventional oil with heavy oils: tar sands and shale oil. Differentiate between the sources and net energy yields of these three types of oil by completing the following table using the dropdown menus provided. Source of Oil is found as petroleum between the pores and cracks of underground rock, what is Oil type? A: Shale oil B: Conventional oil Oil type is Tar sands, what is source of oil? A: Converted from bitumen, which is found in and extracted from sandstone rock B: Converted from Kerogen, which is found in and extracted from sandstone rock Oil type is Tar sands, what is Net Energy Yield? A: Low B: Medium C: High Net Energy Yield is low, what is Oil type? A: Shale oil B: Conventional oil Net Energy Yield is low, what is Source of oil? A: Converted from bitumen, which is found in and extracted from shale rock B: Converted from kerogen, which is found in and extracted from shale rock Question2: Natural gas is widely used as a fuel to cook food and provide heat in homes, to produce electricity in power plants, and to help transport us in cars and trucks. Natural gas has often been collected above conventional oil deposits, but the popularity of collecting this gas using hydraulic fracturing has increased in recent years, particularly in the United States. However, the growing use of hydraulic fracturing, or fracking, has raised environmental concerns, spurring numerous debates and protests across the United States. Proponents of this technique argue that the United States should expand its natural gas production by fracking significantly more shale deposits across the country. They believe that since the world’s proven oil reserves are A: increasing, B: decreasing rapidly, this will increase demand for other sources of energy, such as natural gas. In addition, they argue that fracking more shale deposits across the country will help A: increase, B: decrease natural gas prices for U.S. consumers and boost local economies by creating A: fewer, B: more job opportunities. once natural gas is drawn back up the well to the surface, it is processed, refined, and shipped to market. Ideally, natural gas can be pumped directly into pipelines for distribution. If direct pipelines are not available, however, natural gas can be stored in tanks as A: liquefied natural gas(LNG), B: liquefied petroleum gas(LPG) or transported across oceans as A: liquefied natural gas(LNG), B: liquefied petroleum gas(LPG) What additional impacts can the shipment of natural gas to market have on the environment? A: Increased net energy yield from additional processing of LNG from natural gas refineries B: Increased water pollution from the preparation and transportation of LNG As long as it is not extracted through fracking, natural gas is actually considered to be the A: cleanest, B: dirtiest of all the fossil fuels, as it emits 30%–50% less greenhouse gases into the atmosphere than other fossil fuels. Although there are benefits of increasing natural gas production through fracking, these benefits come at a high cost to the environment. Currently, the natural gas industry is seeking governmental permits to frack more shale deposits around the country. At the same time, many citizens around the country are fighting for an all-out ban on hydraulic fracturing. For the existing sites where fracking is allowed in the United States, what should you encourage the government and natural gas companies to do to minimize the negative effects of this technique? Check all that apply A: Do not allow the natural gas industry to be exempt from regulations protecting water and land B: Ensure wastewater gets recycled instead of being stored in disposal wells C: To save time and money, only require testing for chemical contamination in drinking water before fracking operations start Question3: In the United States, nonrenewable energy resources provide 92% of our commercial energy—energy that is bought and sold on the market for heating, cooking, transportation, and production of other goods and services that enable Americans to live comfortably. The following graphic shows the proven reserves for coal, natural gas, and oil in the world. From this information and what you know about our energy use, it is clear that the United States, located in North America, A: is independent of, B: relies heavily on international reserves for its energy consumption. For example, 65% of the United States’ energy comes from oil and natural gas. Although North America holds A: 15%, B: 28%, C: 5% of the world’s oil reserves and 5% of the world’s natural gas reserves, these resources are overwhelmingly found in A: Africa, B: the Middle East, C: Eurasia Fortunately, this dependence on other countries for energy is not as crucial with respect to coal reserves. That is, although Asia and Oceania lead the amount of coal reserves in the world, North America holds almost A: one-third, B: one-fifth, C: one-half of the world’s coal reserves, followed very closely by A: Europe, B: the Middle East, C: Eurasia A solid fossil fuel formed from A: petrochemicals, B: ancient plant material, , coal is considered to be the A: least, B: most, environmentally harmful fossil fuel in use today. The accompanying photo illustrates one result of burning coal: The large amounts of A: carbon dioxide, B: CH? being emitted into the atmosphere, which are three to five times higher than emissions created by any other fossil fuel. With such high A: greenhouse gas, B: petrochemical, C: natural gas emissions, relying on coal as an energy resource in the future will only advance the effects of A: climate change, B: nuclear fission The government has the power to pass laws to help regulate and control the harmful impacts of coal mining and coal use on the environment. Which of the following actions could a government take to help minimize the detrimental effects of coal? Check all that apply. A: Classify CO? as a pollutant that could be regulated by the EPA. B: Make efforts to phase out fossil fuel use by shifting to renewable energy sources. C: Enforce stricter emissions standards from coal-burning power plants. Question4: When the entire nuclear fuel cycle is evaluated, the main benefit of nuclear power seems to be its lower A: carbon dioxide emissions, B: environmental impact compared with fossil fuels. In general, nuclear power’s disadvantages can be seen to outweigh this benefit because of its low net energy yield, its high overall cost, and its A: recycling, B: production of harmful radioactive wastes. At the 1,2,3 of this cycle, it can take more than 10 years to find, A: enrich, B: mine. A: enrich, B: mine , and assemble uranium before it can even be transported and used as fuel in a reactor. At the 4,5, the reactor core houses the fuel rods, which are used to A: generate electricity, B: absorb neutrons , and the control rods, which are used to A: absorb neutrons, B: generate electricity . However, this process is inefficient, as it only produces about 25% of useful electrical energy from this nuclear fuel. After three to four years, these rods are considered A: useless, B: refined and are temporarily stored in water-filled pools for cooling. At the 6,7,8, it can take up to 60 years before spent fuel rods are reprocessed to remove radioactive wastes and/or transported to dry casks for temporary storage. From mining uranium to storing spent fuel in dry casks, the nuclear fuel cycle can span more than 70 years. The long-term goal, however, is to geologically dispose of and store these nuclear wastes safely for at least A: 10,000, B: 10, C: 100, D: 1,000 years to ensure safety for future generations. Unfortunately, there is currently no facility that has been built and tested for this type of storage anywhere in the world. It is also estimated that over 300 older, worn-out nuclear plants will have to be decommissioned as this century progresses forward with nuclear power. Including this step in the nuclear fuel cycle A: only decreases, B: helps stabilize, C: only increases the overall costs of nuclear power. Why? A: More time and energy will be needed to dismantle a nuclear power plant. B: Overall cost of the nuclear fuel cycle only includes plant operations and not the front end or back end of the cycle. Question5: In the United States, more than $10.4 billion has been spent on the preliminary development of a site at the Yucca Mountain desert region in Nevada that could potentially store nuclear wastes safely in the long term. Political, economic, and environmental controversy over this site as a nuclear waste storage facility has been brewing for over 20 years and continues today. Read the following article and answer the questions that follow. WASHINGTON—Congress for the second consecutive year is zeroing out spending for the Yucca Mountain project, the nuclear waste plant that continues to recede as government policy. A catch-all 2012 spending bill that passed the House on Friday contained no funding for the Nevada repository site, which is shrinking in the rear-view mirror as lawmakers prepare to review new recommendations for managing highly radioactive used nuclear fuel. “Once again, Congress will not appropriate a single dime to make Nevada the nation’s dumping ground for nuclear waste,” said Senate Majority Leader Harry Reid, Democrat-Nevada. “Yucca Mountain was never a good idea, and it’s time to move on towards real solutions that ensure Americans’ health and safety,” Reid said. Reid was said to have used his influence to block the latest efforts by Republicans and some Democrats to resurrect the Yucca project, which the Obama administration terminated in 2009. The lawmakers represent districts that are home to commercial nuclear power plants where spent fuel is kept in pools and above-ground casks and home to government reservations where millions of gallons of Cold War nuclear remnants are stored. They charge the administration acted illegally to end the project without permission from Congress and in a move to curry favor with Reid. Representative John Shimkus, an Illinois Republican who advocated restarting the Yucca project, was disappointed by the outcome of the budget talks, a spokesman said. Shimkus, who delivered weekly House speeches this fall challenging senators to stand up to Reid, “will continue to support Yucca Mountain through personal efforts and by trying to show support by a majority,” the spokesman said. The action keeps the nation’s nuclear waste policy in limbo at least until a commission formed by the Obama administration issues its recommendations on alternatives to Yucca Mountain. Its report is due late January. Earlier this month, a group of key senators who work on energy policies confirmed they have agreed to work on post-Yucca legislation for short-term and long-term nuclear waste storage. The findings of the commission would serve as a base. Senator Lamar Alexander, Republican-Tennessee, told Congressional Quarterly it is “urgently important we find a place to temporarily and permanently put the used fuel and not just stay stuck in an argument about Yucca Mountain.” According to the article, Senate Majority Leader Harry Reid (Democrat-Nevada) challenges the notion that nuclear waste could be buried and stored A: unsafely, B: safely at Yucca Mountain. Why might this be so? A: There is no guarantee that storage containers holding spent fuel rods would even be leak-free, thus creating the potential for radioactive contamination. B: The current way of storing spent fuel rods at power plants could save the country from disastrous power plant accidents, such as the one that occurred at the Fukushima plant in Japan. Representative John Shimkus (Republican-Illinois), whose state relies on nuclear power more than any other state, is a strong A: proponent of, B: opponent of burying and storing nuclear waste at Yucca Mountain. Why might this be so? A: The current way of storing spent fuel rods at power plants could lead to disastrous power plant accidents, such as the one that occurred at the Fukushima plant in Japan. B: Storage containers holding spent fuel rods would be leak-free, thus potentially causing radioactive contamination. Suggested Method is Shooting radioactive wastes into space or into the sun, what is Source of Concern? A: Could disperse wastes over large areas if the earth’s surface B: Still requires long-term storage of leftover materials C: Could explode and melt down, releasing large amounts of radiation Suggested Method is S Set up full-time security for 30 to 100 years around decommissioned power plants , what is Source of Concern? A: Could disperse wastes over large areas if the earth’s surface B: Still requires long-term storage of leftover materials C: Could explode and melt down, releasing large amounts of radiation Suggested Method is Enclose decommissioned power plants in concrete and steelreinforced tombs, what is Source of Concern? A: Could disperse wastes over large areas if the earth’s surface B: Still requires long-term storage of leftover materials C: Could explode and melt down, releasing large amounts of radiation Question6: According to the graph, a little over A: 8%, B: 4%, C: 54% of the energy used by the United States is produced from biomass. This figure is A: significantly lower than, B: significantly higher than, C: comparable to that for any of the nonrenewable sources of energy. Of the five major renewable energy resources listed, wind energy, A: geothermal energy, B: hydropower, C: natural gas , and biomass are indirect forms of solar energy. Why is this so? A: They are all driven by the sun, wind, and water. B: They are not replenished on a human time scale. C: They are all driven by solar energy. A: Similar to, B: Unlike the United States, some countries around the world rely on renewable energy to provide most of their heat and electricity. For example, Costa Rica gets more than 95% of its electric power from renewable energy resources and Germany plans to get 80% of its electricity from renewable energy by 2050. Such reliance on renewable energy benefits human societies as well as the environment: It A: reduces, B: enhances air pollution, decreases water contamination, slows climate-change effects, creates jobs, and saves consumers money. With all these benefits, what may be stopping countries from transitioning to a more renewable energy–dominated society? A: Coal-fired power plants are more energy efficient. B: Funding for research and development of renewable energy resources have been too high. C: Prices for nonrenewable energy resources do not include the harmful environmental and human health costs of producing and using them. Question7: In Germany, the average day is cloudy. Therefore, you wouldn’t expect Germany to be an overwhelming leader in solar energy production, but it is. In 2009 alone, Germany installed 3,806 megawatts of solar energy capacity, almost eight times more than what the United States installed in 2008. More recently, China has taken the lead, with an annual increase of nearly 45,000 megawatts in 2018. Similar to other solar technologies, this A: photovoltaic cell technology, B: concentrated solar power technique, C: passive solar heating system, D: active solar heating system will require consistent access to sunlight to work effectively; it’s A: disadvantage, B: advantage, however, is that it has minimal to no direct emissions of carbon dioxide. One of the main reasons for Germany’s early leadership in solar technology is Germany’s Renewable Energy Sources Act, which passed in 2000. This act required electricity companies to buy a certain amount of electricity derived from renewable resources, such as solar energy, and to pay rates higher than retail value. Thus, as expected with A: no economic incentives, B: government support, C: this economic handicap, solar companies quickly became A: noncompetitive, B: competitive in the energy marketplace. Question8: Shifting the current economy, which is fueled primarily by nonrenewable energy resources, to one that is reliant on a mix of renewable energy resources will drastically reduce pollution, greenhouse gas emissions, and biodiversity loss. In short, it will lead to a more sustainable energy future. Use the dropdown menus to match the following renewable energy resources with their associated methodologies. Methodology is Uses heat stored in the earth’s interior to heat and cool buildings, what is Renewable Energy Resource? A: Wind turbines B: Solid biomass C: Geothermal energy Methodology is Burns plant materials and animal wastes as fuel, what is Renewable Energy Resource? A: Wind turbines B: Solid biomass C: Geothermal energy Methodology is Uses wind potential to produce electricity, what is Renewable Energy Resource? A: Wind turbines B: Solid biomass C: Geothermal energy Advantage is Easy to build and expand on, what is Renewable Energy Resource? A: Solid biomass B: Wind turbine C: Geothermal energy Advantage is Easy to build and expand on, what is Disadvantage? A: Greatest source of power generally located close to cities B: Greatest source of power generally located far from cities Advantage is Moderate net energy ratio, what is Renewable Energy Resource? A: Solid biomass B: Wind turbine C: Geothermal energy Advantage is Plantations can help restore degraded lands, what is Renewable Energy Resource? A: Solid biomass B: Wind turbine C: Geothermal energy Advantage is Plantations can help restore degraded lands, what is Disadvantage? A: Has potential to lead to deforestation B: an unknown storage system C: a negative net energy ratio Of the renewable energy resources listed in the preceding tables, which one do these rods utilize? A: liquid biofuel, B: Geothermal energy, C: Brazil’s motor Question9: By following RMI’s vision and shifting the United States’ fossil fuel dependency to energy efficiency and renewable energy, what can you expect to see in the future of the United States? Check all that apply. A: Industries that can produce 84% more, yet use 9%–13% less energy B: Stronger, more profitable businesses and, thus, a more prosperous economy C: A significantly cleaner and healthier environment Which of the following actions can Americans urge the United States government to take that may, in turn, assist in reaching RMI’s goals as presented in Reinventing Fire? A: Encourage programs that educate consumers about the benefits and risks of various energy sources. B: Get rid of renewable energy subsidies and, instead, provide more subsidies for use of fossil fuels. Question10: Associated Foreign Press, January 2012 BEIRUT, Lebanon—The collapse of a building in the Lebanese capital in which 27 people died has put the spotlight on the dismal state of run-down properties across the country that many say are “ticking time bombs.” The tragedy on Sunday saw a sixstory apartment block crumble to the ground within minutes, burying residents, many of them foreign labourers, who had no time to scramble to safety. Although there are no firm statistics, the streets of the capital are dotted with derelict buildings lined with cracks, missing balconies, and rusting grids, which stand in stark contrast to shiny, new high rises. “The problem of unsafe housing is not limited to Beirut—it’s spread throughout Lebanon,” said Rached Sarkis, a civil engineer and founder of the Lebanese Association of Seismic Hazard Mitigation. “Prior to 2005, buildings in Lebanon did not have to meet international standards, as the government had not passed a decree to that effect,” he told AFP. “Developers took advantage of the situation to maximize profit at the expense of public safety.” “Many buildings were also built prior to the 1971 construction law, which requires structural study before building,” said MP Mohammed Qabbani, head of the parliamentary committee for public works. Today, rent for a single room in Beirut runs around $500 per month while two- or three-bedroom apartments sell for a minimum of half a million dollars. “What do you tell a landlord who needs $100,000 to renovate his building but makes $5,000 annually in rent?” asked Qabbani. “And what do you tell families who say the $20,000 they’re being offered to leave their homes is insufficient for them to find a new place?” Which of the following appear to be responsible for the building collapse outlined in the article? Check all that apply. A: Poverty and economic conditions B: An earthquake C: Unsafe building codes The hazards discussed in the article can be categorized primarily as A: natural, B: cultural, C: lifestyle hazards. Which of the following statements accurately illustrate a step in risk assessment? Check all that apply. A: Drinking and driving influences the number of car accidents on holidays. B: The chance of contracting the AIDS virus from a single act of heterosexual intercourse with an infected partner is 1 in 500 if a condom is not used. C: Exercising three to four days per week increases cardiovascular health. Question11: Infectious diseases that are vector borne involve at least two organisms: a vector and a host. The vector is typically an insect such as a flea or a mosquito, and the host is a larger animal. A vector infects a host by biting it; from there, a host may infect another host. To infect a human, pathogens (bacteria, viruses, parasites, protozoa, or fungi) must be passed from the vector or host to a human. The following map illustrates incidents of a specific vector-borne disease, West Nile virus, between 1996 and 2004. West Nile fever is a symptom seen in individuals who are carrying the single-stranded RNA virus known as the West Nile virus (WNV). The virus originates in mosquitoes, which transmit it to humans or other animals. According to the map, the spatial distribution of WNV between 1996 and 2004 is more suggestive of A: a pandemic, B: an epidemic disease. From what you have read here and what you know, in general, about viral infections, which of the following is true about WNV? Check all that apply. A: The vector of WNV is the mosquito. B: WNV is not a transmissible disease. C: The pathogen that causes WNV depends on the living cells of its host to help it reproduce and spread in a population. Unlike transmissible diseases such as WNV, nontransmissible diseases are those illnesses that A: do not, B: do spread from person to person and are not caused by pathogens. Generally, what are some lifestyle choices that Americans can make to directly reverse the trend seen in these maps? Check all that apply. A: Opt for a more active lifestyle. B: Eat fewer processed foods. C: Get your vaccinations up to date Question12: According to the map, rank the following countries by the number of incidents of MDR-TB, from highest to lowest. (Peru, Kazakhstan, U.S) Write you answer:________ Of the two countries, A: India, B: Mexico had higher rates of TB infection from 1990 to 2010. For example, in 2010, India had almost A: 5 times less, B: 10 times less, C: 10 times more, D: 5 times more cases of TB per 100,000 people than Mexico. DOTS was implemented in India with success. Based on the graphs, it is reasonable to say that DOTS was implemented in India A: after, B: before 2000. This means that in 2005 approximately 3 people per 100,000 individuals were infected with both HIV and TB in Mexico. But how does this number compare to the population in India? Using the same preceding calculation methods, determine the highest number of people from India who were infected with both HIV and TB in 2005. A: 70 to 80 people per 100,000 individuals B: 5 to 10 people per 100,000 individuals C: 100 to 300 people per 100,000 individuals TB currently infects 9 million people per year and kills an estimated 1.4 million per year—or one death every 22 seconds, on average. How can local governments help slow the spread of this disease? Check all that apply. A: Increase the funding for screening and control programs B: Provide financial incentives for large drug companies to develop alternative drug treatments for patients C: Provide antibiotics for the people living in areas with high incidence of multidrug-resistant TB Question13: Humans are exposed to methylmercury almost entirely by eating contaminated fish and wildlife that are at the top of aquatic food chains. Exposure to methylmercury can wreak havoc on some of the major human body systems. Use the dropdown menus to complete the following table on the effects that methylmercury can have on human health. Effect of Methylmercury on Human Health is Will decrease the body’s ability to fight off pathogens, what is Human Body System Affected? A: Immune system B: Endocrine system Effect of Methylmercury on Human Health is As an HAA, can interfere with the work of natural hormones, what is Human Body System Affected? A: Immune system B: Endocrine system Human Body System Affected is Nervous system, what is Effect of Methylmercury on Human Health? A: May result in accelerated cognitive development, such as shorter memory. B: May result in delayed cognitive development, such as shorter memory. Each person can take precautions to decrease individual exposure to methylmercury, such as being mindful of where the food you eat fits in the food chain. On a larger scale, however, shifting human societies more toward a pollution prevention approach, which reduces or eliminates the production of pollutants, will be a more effective strategy when dealing with toxic chemicals than the currently dominant pollution cleanup approach, which involves cleaning up or diluting pollutants after they have been produced and released into the environment. Of the following actions in dealing with mercury, which is the best example of a pollution prevention approach? A: Collect and recycle batteries and other products that contain mercury B: Find less toxic substitutes that can be used in current mercury-based products C: Switch from renewable energy resources to coal Question14: Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) are one of the five top toxic chemical substances that present the greatest hazard to human and environmental health. The remaining four substances are arsenic, lead, mercury, and vinyl chloride. A toxic chemical is characterized by which of the following? Check all that apply. A: Can cause death to humans B: Can cause temporary harm to animals C: Can cause permanent harm to animals Judging from this course of events, which of the following pathways can best explain the human illnesses that occurred between June and August? Assume that chickens are a farm crop. A: S to V B: GW to S C: C to H It is fairly common knowledge that certain toxic chemicals may lead to negative health effects, such as neurological disorders, immune system weakening, and deficient endocrine systems. Which of the following toxic substances may result in human fetal disorders? A: Carcinogen B: Teratogen C: Mutagen What can women do during their pregnancy to reduce the probability of birth defects due to this type of toxic substance? A?Decrease alcohol consumption B: Smoke cigarettes C: Increase exercise Until very recently, bisphenol A (BPA) was a common component of plastic-based products ranging from canned-food liners and storage containers to baby bottles. Initially, BPA was correlated with disruptions in hormone balances in humans. However, more scientific research has established links between BPA and nervous system disorders, breast cancer, diabetes, and obesity. BPA’s effects on the brain, behavior, and prostate gland in fetuses, infants, and children present the greatest concern according to the U.S. National Institutes of Health (NIH). BPA ingestion is of some concern in the case of infants and children because drinking cups and other food containers are frequently made of plastic. Warming food or liquids in these containers may increase the risk of ingestion. This can be avoided by noting that some, but not all, plastics that are marked with recycle codes 3 or 7 could be made with BPA. According to the summary, which of the following actions will help reduce the risk of BPA intake? Check all that apply. A: Stop drinking wine B: When possible, opt for glass, porcelain, or stainless steel containers, particularly for hot food or liquids C: Purchase plastic items with recycle codes 2 and 5, instead of items with recycle codes 3 and 7 Question15: That is, in this method, scientists measure the A: response, B: dose, C: drug, or amount of toxin that is consumed by an individual, and a A: does, B: response, C: toxin , or the resulting effects of these toxins on the individual, such as mortality. When enough individuals are tested in this method, the results of these studies are plotted on a graph, which can then inform the level of toxicity for the tested toxic chemical or, in some cases, biological agents. According to the results of the study, at what exposure will 50% of the rats experience stillbirth? A: 10? B: 10? C: 10¹ Like other methods used to get information about the harmful effects of chemicals on human health, measuring dose-response curves has its limitations and benefits. What are the limitations to these types of studies? Check all that apply. A: These experiments tend to use large doses, so the impact of trace amounts of toxins over longer periods of time are less definitive. B: Outside of the laboratory, toxic chemicals typically interact with other chemicals in the environment. Conversely, what are the benefits to these types of studies? Check all that apply. A: They can quickly estimate the toxicity for a variety of chemicals. B: They are more reliable than case reports. Question16: To reduce exposure to toxins in the environment, people should be more aware of what types of toxins they are exposed to and then implement ways to either prevent or minimize this exposure. The following excerpt is from an article that raises awareness of the dangers of toxic chemicals present in car interiors. Read the excerpt and answer the question that follows. Toxic car interior rankings Since the average American spends more than 1.5 hours in a car every day, exposure to the hundreds of toxic chemicals inside vehicles can be a major source of indoor air pollution. Their internal air temperatures of up to 192°F and dash temperatures of up to 248°F can increase the concentration of volatile organic compounds and break other chemicals down into more toxic substances, the Ecology Center said. Ecology Center Research Director Jeff Gearhart said that these chemicals are not regulated, so car buyers have no way of knowing what dangers they or their employees face. Based on the article, which of the following is true? Check all that apply. A: Car buyers cannot control how much time they spend in their car. B: Car buyers who live in warm climates are more likely to inhale toxic substances. C: Because the chemicals are unregulated, toxicity levels are probably unknown. Which of the following actions by the car industry will most effectively minimize consumer exposure to the toxic chemicals present in car interiors? A: Take the initiative to show that all the chemicals they use are deemed safe by EPA standards. B: To save time and energy, wait until the EPA lists specific chemicals that should be banned from use. C: Discourage programs such as REACH. Question17: According to the graph, which of the following statements is true? A: Tobacco use is more than 10 times as likely to result in premature death than automobile accidents. B: More people die, prematurely, from infectious diseases than from alcohol use. C: Summed together, illegal drug use, homicides, and suicides cause more premature deaths than alcohol use. Acoording the picture, Tobacco use (smoking): A: 2, B: 1, C: 3 Acoording the picture, Driving: Write your answer: A: 2, B: 1, C: 3 Acoording the picture, Drinking alcohol: Write your answer: A: 2, B: 1, C: 3 Most people can take responsibility for avoiding many health hazards. Individuals can also make choices that might help to lessen health hazards for other people. Which of the following is not an action that you can take as an individual to help reduce health hazards? A: Tan out in the sun instead of going to tanning booths B: Find and use na

Description    UNFORMATTED ATTACHMENT PREVIEW Please answer the following two questions, do not cite any sources. Question1?(100 words) What is the source of your tap water at home - is it well water or from a public water supply? If you have a public water provider, do a quick internet search to identify the company or water authority responsible for the drinking water in your area and see if you can find information about the source of the water (ie does the water come from ground water, surface water, or a specific body of water). Question2?(100 words) Do you drink the tap water or do you purchase bottled water? If you answered that you drink tap water, do you filter it in any way first? Why? Purchase answer to see full attachment Explanation & Answer: 2 Questions User generated content is uploaded by users for the purposes of learning and should be used following Studypool's honor code & terms of service.

Description UNFORMATTED ATTACHMENT PREVIEW Complete the following tasks. You discovered that a species of bacteria can break down Styrofoam™ (polystyrene) products due to an enzyme it produces, polystyrenase. You wish to study the gene that codes for this enzyme. Task 1: DNA Extraction To begin work on the bacterium, you begin by extracting its genomic DNA (gDNA). What is the purpose of the following procedures? Answer briefly but completely. a. Using sodium dodecyl sulfate, a detergent Answer: __________________________________ b. Adding RNase A and Proteinase K during extraction Answer: __________________________________ c. Adding ethanol before recovering the DNA extract Answer: __________________________________ Task 2: Polymerase Chain Reaction After purifying the gDNA extract, you want to isolate and amplify the polystyrenase gene. You perform PCR using the appropriate gene-targeted primers. What is the purpose of the following PCR components? Answer briefly but completely. a. DNA polymerase isolated from Thermus aquaticus Answer: __________________________________ b. Deoxynucleotide triphosphates (dNTPs) Answer: __________________________________ c. Forward and reverse primers Answer: __________________________________ Task 3: Agarose Gel Electrophoresis Your amplicon from PCR was subjected to AGE for analysis. You are shown the image of the gel loaded with the following lanes: (A) negative control, (B) size ladder (1, 2, 3, 4, 6, and 10 kb), (C) gDNA extract, (D) PCR amplicon. However, due to mishaps while loading the gel with the samples, you are not sure which lane is which. You are shown a diagram of the obtained gel below. a. Label each lane of the gel. Write only the corresponding letters in the wells above. b. Above each band in the size ladder, write its size (in kb). c. Approximate the size (in kb) of the polystyrenase gene. Write your answer above the band corresponding to the gene. Bonus: If you wish to identify the bacterial species in this scenario, what gene is most commonly and routinely sequenced? Answer: __________________________________ Purchase answer to see full attachment User generated content is uploaded by users for the purposes of learning and should be used following Studypool's honor code & terms of service.

this relatively high R/P ratio doesn’t actually mean much. Extraction Coal is removed from the ground or mined in one of two ways. Underground mining

Description     UNFORMATTED ATTACHMENT PREVIEW Assignment 1: Waste Tracking Challenge Due week 3 - Worth 10% of your grade We use throw away packaging every day, but have you thought about how much? This research mission invites you to monitor and record all plastics, packaging, and waste that you buy and throw away in one week through your groceries, snacks and take-away food. Keep track on what kind of plastics packaging you are getting, especially the smaller formats, and how much of it is actually reused or collected for recycling where you live. For this assignment, you will be submitting a final report, outlining the following: ? Step 1: Personal Introduction / Projections: Before you get started, reflect on how much packaging you likely use each day. Through what activities do you think you produce the most trash? Write one paragraph taking a guess at how much you produce each week. Include this in the introduction of your report. ? Step 2: Trash Inventory: The second part of your report will include a visual or written inventory describing what you disposed of. What are those items or materials that you disposed of? You can take notes, take photographs, draw illustrations, create graphs and charts, mind maps, etc. Choose a method that’s easiest and most interesting for you to record. ? Step 3: Reflect. At the week, reflect on your activities. What did you learn about yourself? About waste? What are some areas for improvement? ? Step 4: Share. Create a PPT presentation and present key findings to the class. Tell us personal stories. What surprised you? What did you notice or learn about yourself? Deliverables: ? 1-3 page report with photographs, charts, and personal reflections. Use headings above as key sections. Be creative with how you put your report together. Use your design skills to emphasize key points, or summarize information. ? 10 minute in-class presentation discussing key findings RUBRIC Thoroughness - The report is well-documented, and includes an inventory of all trash collected each day. You include visual references, and a list of all trash that you tracked this week. /30 Reflection- You have effectively discussed your activities, and discovered new insights about your behaviour. Those insights gave rise to possible behaviour changes, which you have tested in your report. /40 Presentation - Your findings are presented creatively, and in an organized manner. /30 Purchase answer to see full attachment Explanation & Answer: 1 presentation User generated content is uploaded by users for the purposes of learning and should be used following Studypool's honor code & terms of service.

the only world we’re ever going to have. Bill Reid

Description Water and Soil Conservation Projects Instructions Instructions: Topic - Crop Rotation EACH STUDENT WILL DEVELOP A POWERPOINT PRESENTATION (8 - 12 MINUTES LONG) ON A TOPIC RELATED TO WATER OR SOIL CONSERVATION. Details: Please have a references slide (you need to cite at least 5 references) you used for your presentation. At least 2 references you cited should be from peer-reviewed articles (peer-reviewed articles are published in peer reviewed journals This project report should include the followings: The background information for the project: Explanation of problem: What is/was the problem? What caused it? Who was affected? Significance of the problem: Proposed solutions/activities/technologies: Approaches/methods/mechanisms: The impact or outcome of the proposed solutions. Future recommendations: What is your recommendation to prevent this problem from occurring in other areas or in the future. Explanation & Answer: 8 Slides User generated content is uploaded by users for the purposes of learning and should be used following Studypool's honor code & terms of service.