Description Write a paragraph describing a hypothetical project scenario and then provide an exampl ...
Description Write a paragraph describing a hypothetical project scenario and then provide an example of a change for each of the following categories: External Event Error or omission in scope of product Error or omission in scope of project Value-added change Risk response https://www.prosci.com/resources/articles/integrat... UNFORMATTED ATTACHMENT PREVIEW Slide 1 ITEC 640 – Lesson 3 Project Integration Management Week 3 Welcome to lesson 3. This week’s lesson includes a discussion of project integration management, which ties together the “big picture” associated with the project. This lesson will provide you a discussion of how closely interrelated the many components of a project are. You will also be introduced to the concept of change control which is applied in a similar manner throughout all phases of project management. Ineffective change management is a prominent cause of failures of software projects. NOTE: All slides and lessons for this class were developed by Dr. K. Nance and revised by Dr. C. Howard Slide 2 Topics Project Plan Development n Project Plan Execution n Integrated Change Control n Summary n Slide 2 lists the topics that we will investigate this week. Slide 3 Project Process Groups There are five basic components/phases that every project has: Initiating n Planning n Executing n Controlling n Closing n Projects progress through an identifiable set of steps. The majority of the discussion today is on project initiation with some discussion of planning and controlling. The other two topics (executing and closing) are the focus of later chapters. Briefly, executing is managing the project during the development phase and closing are the activities associated with project termination. Slide 4 Project Initiation Project initiation is the formal recognition that a project should begin and that resources should be allocated to the project. Projects can be initiated in response to: Marketing Demand Business Need n Customer Request n Technological Advance n Legal Requirement n Social Need n Others... n n Projects are a response to a need. Six potential needs are listed here and most software projects are developed in response to one (or a combination) of these needs. Slide 5 Project Initiation Project initiation includes the following: Identifying a project Identifying the project stakeholders n Identifying project requirements n n In order for a project to proceed to the next phase, a few important steps associated with project initiation must occur. The project must be identified, as well as associated stakeholders and requirements. Slide 6 Project Initiation Process Project description describes the project. It should be clearly documented and outline the characteristics of the product or service. This to consider are: Organization’s strategic plan Project selection criteria n Historical information n n How should a project be described? This slide outlines some of the things that should be considered in describing the project. Note the importance of the organization (strategic plan, project selection criteria, and history/experience) in this step. Slide 7 Project Initiation Process A project overview document describes the project. It is also called a project concept document. It should outline the project goals. “Goal” is frequently misused in IT projects. The next slide outlines criteria for determining if you are using the term appropriately and if the goals are welldefined. Slide 8 Project Initiation Process Each project goal should meet the following “SMART” criteria: n Specific n Measurable n Accurate n Realistic and tangible n Time bound Many times goals are vague, not measurable, inaccurate, unobtainable, or openended. Any of these characteristics represents a point of probable failure for a project. It is important to make a list of goals that use the SMART criteria in order to keep a project on schedule. Slide 9 Project Initiation Process Project requirements differ from project goals. Project requirements are specifications of the goal or deliverables. They help us answer the question “How will we know if we are successful?” During many projects, a common question is “How will you know when you are done?” The correct answer to this question is “when I have met all of my requirements.” Obviously, if you do not have formal requirements, you can never truly be done. Slide 10 Project Initiation Process Project deliverables are measurable outcomes, measurable results, or specific items that must be produced to consider the project or phase to be completed. They must be specific and verifiable. Project deliverables are another area in which details are important. The controlling stakeholders must agree on specific and verifiable deliverables in order to conduct a successful project. Slide 11 Project Initiation Process Project stakeholders are people and/or organizations who have a vested interest in the outcome of the project. They might include: Project Sponsor Customer n Project Manager n Project Team Members n Management Personnel n Contractors n Suppliers n Clients n End Users n n So, who are these stakeholders? Stakeholders are anyone who is affected by the project. Clearly some stakeholders have more control over a project than others. It is important to identify your audience so you know who you need to please and who you need to listen to throughout the project life cycle. Slide 12 Project Initiation Process It is important that the project manager (PM) understand each stakeholder’s role in the project and in the organization. Clearly some stakeholders have more control over a project than others. It is important to identify your audience so you know who you need to please and who you need to listen to throughout the project life cycle. Slide 13 Project Overview Document The project overview document is a highlevel look at the project goals and deliverables. Feasibility study Project constraint identification n Project assumptions n n The more you think through the project, the better your document will be. More effort “upfront” in project prevents rework later. Slide 14 Project Plan Execution The project plan execution is the primary process for carrying out the project plan Inputs Tools and techniques n Outputs n n PMBOK associates inputs, tools and techniques, and outputs with each project topic. The inputs show what you need to have in order to proceed with a particular project topic. The tools and techniques are applied during the project topic in order to produce the outputs. They are discussed in more detail on subsequent slides. Slide 15 Project Plan Execution Inputs to project plan execution include: The project plan Supporting detail n Organizational policies n Preventative action n Corrective action n n Input to project plan execution include: The project plan – What are we supposed to do? Supporting Detail – Technical documents, standards, etc. Organizational policies – What restrictions/assistance does the organizational environment provide for the project? Preventive action – What have you done to minimize risks? Corrective action – What have you done to keep the project on track? Slide 16 Project Plan Execution Outputs from project plan execution include: n n Work results Change requests Outputs include: Work results – The work results include deliverables as well as information about what has been done and progress-to-date. Change requests – Change requests provide a formal mechanism to expand or contract the project scope and adjust timeline. Slide 17 Integrated Change Control The inability to manage change causes significant numbers of project failures. Each project (or organization) should have a formal change control plan. A previous slide discussed the importance of change control. Consider a client who suddenly requests a new component for his web site based on “seeing it at another website.” To manage this change, the change is submitted in writing, an evaluation of the impact of the change on time, personnel, budget, etc. is evaluated and then the decision is made by the appropriate group. Note that it is likely that the previous would only happen if it was part of the formal change control plan. Slide 18 Integrated Change Control Change control provides a formal method for managing changes throughout the project life cycle: Inputs Tools and techniques n Outputs n n Controlling change means controlling the project throughout the phases of a project including changes to inputs, tools and techniques, and outputs. Slide 19 Integrated Change Control Inputs to change control includes: The project plan Performance report n Change requests n n The change control inputs provide the information necessary to determine the impact of the change. Slide 20 Integrated Change Control Tools and techniques used in effective change control include: Change control system Configuration management n Performance measurements n Additional planning n Project planning information system n n The change control system is the lifesaver for the project manager. They prevent impulse changed being made by ANYONE associated with the project. It provides a formal method for requesting and approving changes. Slide 21 Integrated Change Control Outputs from change control include: Project plan updates Corrective action n Lessons learned n n Changes result in updates to the project plan, and sometimes, with corrective actions undertaken to bring the project back in line with expectations. All changes should be documented as “lessons learned” so that future projects and planned better. Slide 22 Concluding Thoughts This lesson reviewed project management and project processes from planning and initiation to the final stages. Aspects of projects can change, and managing the change process is essential. To reinforce the learning, think about the content we covered in the slides and readings. What are you learning this week? What are the key points? ks. This text was adapted by The Saylor Foundation under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 License without attribution as requested by the work’s original creator or licensee. Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org 1 Project Management in a Complex World Faster, cheaper, and better has become the mantra of not only profit-making organizations seeking to increase market share and profits but also nonprofits and governmental organizations seeking to increase their value to clients. Organizations are increasingly using projects to meet these goals. Projects are goal directed and time framed, and when managed well, projects deliver on time and within budget. This book is about how to manage projects well. All projects have common characteristics: every project has a scope, budget, and schedule. Projects also differ. Understanding how projects differ and what that difference means to the management of the project is critical to successfully managing a project. Large, complex projects need project management tools, systems, and processes that are very different from the small and less complex project. Within this text, we provide a tool for profiling a project based on the complexity of the project and describe the different project management approaches needed for the difference in project profiles. Project management is complicated. In some ways, this is a good thing because students who learn how to manage projects well will find it a rewarding career, and there will always be a demand for their services. Project management is complicated because projects consist of many activities that are interrelated, and the actions taken in one activity affect several other aspects of the project. Project management is complex because project managers must understand several knowledge areas and develop a variety of tools and techniques to successfully manage a project. This complexity makes it challenging to learn about project management because regardless of which activity you begin to study, you need to know something about the other activities to which it is related. Organization of the Book This text addresses the challenges posed by various levels of project complexity by introducing an approach to profiling projects and discussing the implications to project Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org 2 management. The text provides an overview of project management and uses the industry standard definitions of the divisions of project management knowledge as described by the Project Management Institute (PMI) to provide grounding in traditional project management concepts. Additionally, students learn a technique developed by the authors to assess the complexity level of a project. This overview and complexity profile provides a cognitive map to which the student can refer when they proceed to the second part of the book and learn more about the specific areas of project management knowledge. Students learn more about specific topics in chapters devoted to scope, planning, budgeting, cost management, quality, risk management, procurement, and closeout. They learn about the knowledge, skills, and tools used in each of these areas. They learn that different subsets of this knowledge, skills, and tools are needed depending on the complexity of the project and how to make the appropriate selection based on a project’s complexity profile. They also learn that different subsets of knowledge, skills, and tools are used depending on the phase of the project. Because they already have an overview, students can appreciate how the topics in each chapter in this section relate to other topics. Students also learn about the most complex part of project management—dealing with people. The project manager is often the factor that makes the difference between success and failure of a project and whether or not a project manager enjoys his or her job. Students learn about managing meetings, team development, and driving innovation in the project environment. Students also learn about managing client expectations, developing an appropriate project culture, and motivating the project team. Additionally, students learn about the different management approaches the project manager must use at different times in the project, including authoritarian, facilitator, counselor, collaborator, and partner. Students assess their own leadership abilities and identify which aspects of a project they are most likely to manage well and where they need to improve their skills or team with someone else who has those skills. Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org 3 Online Supplements The concepts taught in the textbook are reinforced using traditional questions, essay assignments, and discussion questions. Examples of these activities are as follows: ? Step-by-step instructions on how to use software to accomplish project management tasks: o Using collapsible outlines in MS Word 2003 and 2007 and MS Word for Mac 2008 to create a work breakdown structure o Using Excel and OpenOffice Calc to create an activity list with precedents, durations, and a Gantt chart o Using Google Docs and Office Live to prepare project scope statements and work breakdown structure documents in an online shared work environment where team members each do a portion of the task o Using OpenProject (a free, open source project management software that is similar to MS Project) or Microsoft Project trial software to create an activity list with durations and precedents to create a PERT (program evaluation and review technique) chart and identify the critical path and project float o Using Project On Demand to work with a team to create a similar activity list in an online environment where each team member is responsible for a portion of the activities ? Project management resources located online—URLs of online resources, such as the following: ? o Project management definitions o Pronunciations of key terms o Project management forms used by government agencies Screen captures to record visits to sites for grading purposes Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org 4 ? A bookmark folder for project management sites that can be added to, to develop a resource library of Web addresses ? Exploration and reporting o Instructions on how to use advanced search features in Google to limit results using keywords, phrases, recent pages, domain names, and exclusion terms o Searches for information on issues and events in project management that can be reported upon in class or in online discussions ? Team activities o Determining international time zones and dates o Dialing international calls o Using Internet-based voice and video conferencing software Other Online Activities ? Self-assessment, in which students rate their grasp of each learning objective at the beginning of their study of the chapter and at the end to demonstrate that learning has occurred on these objectives and to provide the instructor with quantitative data to prove learning has occurred for assessment purposes ? Audio interviews with project management experts in which they relate insights to managing real projects ? Case studies depicting examples of the concepts in the text that are drawn primarily from the authors’ consulting experience and supplemented with links to sites online where current project cases are described Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org 5 Chapter 1 Introduction to Project Management This chapter provides an overview of project management, defining both projects and project management and exploring the difference between project management and operations management. Advances in technology are driving the speed of innovation and the ability of organizations to shorten the time needed to develop and deliver new products and services that increase an organization’s competitive advantage. This drive to develop new and unique products or services creates a perfect environment for the application of project management methodologies and skills. We also provide a brief overview of the knowledge areas of project management and the skills needed to be a successful project manager. Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org 6 1.1 Project Management Defined LEARNING OBJECTIVES 1. Identify the Project Management Institute’s definition of project management. 2. Analyze and evaluate the role of client expectations in a project. 3. Define project scope. “Project management is the application of knowledge, skills, tools, and techniques to project activities to meet the project requirements.” [1] This simple definition represents a compromise that resulted from intense discussions within the Project Management Institute (PMI) during the 1980s. One of the priorities of PMI during this time was the development of project management as a profession. Although debate continues on whether project management is a profession with an enforceable code of conduct and other traditional criteria for recognition as a profession, the development of A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK Guide) and the project management certifications that derived from these efforts helped promote the understanding and development of the project management field. The discussion about what should be in the definition of project management included debates about the purpose of project management. Is the main purpose to meet client expectations or is the main purpose to meet the written specifications and requirements? This discussion around meeting project requirements was not easily settled. If it is assumed that the project client is the one who defines project requirements, then maybe project management is the application of knowledge, skills, tools, and techniques to meet client requirements or client expectations. PMI’s definition of project management does provide a good understanding of project management, but it does not help us understand project success. For that, we must include the client. Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org 7 Jack Meredith and Samuel Mantel [2] discussed project management in terms of producing project outcomes within the three objectives of cost, schedule, and specifications. Project managers are then expected to develop and execute a project plan that meets cost, schedule, and specification parameters. According to this view, project management is the application of everything a project manager does to meet these parameters. This approach to defining project management shares PMI’s focus on the project outcomes in terms of requirements. Meredith and Mantel added a fourth aspect of project management—the expectations of the client. One client-centered definition of project management is the application of knowledge, skills, tools, and techniques to meet or exceed the expectations of the client. This definition focuses on delivering a product or service to the client that meets expectations rather than project specifications. It is possible to meet all project specifications and not meet client expectations or fail to meet one or more specifications and still meet or exceed a client’s expectation. [3] Meredith and Mantel discussed a tendency noted by Darnall [4] that expectations often increase during the life of a project. Meredith and Mantel suggest that this is a form of scope increase. Aproject scope is a carefully crafted document that reflects the performance specifications of the project deliverables. Defining the project scope and managing scope change is a very different process from developing an understanding of a client’s expectations and managing those expectations. Darnall focused on defining and managing client expectations as a critical project management skill that is distinct from scope development and management. Client expectations encompass an emotional component that includes many client desires that are not easily captured within a specification document. Although closely correlated with project specifications, client expectations are driven by different needs. It is possible for a project team to exceed every project specification and end up with an unsatisfied client. Highway Project Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org 8 The Department of Highways in South Carolina was exploring ways to reduce the road construction costs and developed new contracting processes to allow the road builders to bring new ideas for cutting costs. On one project, the contractor proposed cost-cutting ideas throughout the life of the project. At each phase, the client accepted many of the ideas and then revised the budget. The client promoted the revised cost target of the project as an example of the success of the new process. By the end of the project, the final cost was less than 1 percent over the newest target. Although the total cost of the project was almost 10 percent less than the original cost projections and contract obligations, the success of the project was connected to the new expectations that developed during the life of the project. Even though this project performance exceeded the original goal, the client was disappointed. The reverse is also true. A project can be late and over budget and the client can be satisfied. Although this may be counterintuitive, the response of a client to the events of a project is complex and goes beyond the data related in project specifications. Biotech Project A biotechnology company developed a new drug that proved to have a large market demand, and the team that developed the drug was assigned to build a new manufacturing facility to produce the drug. The project manager for the construction company that was awarded the contract to build the manufacturing facility managed the project effectively. Every request for a change in scope was approved, and the result was a 20 percent increase to the total cost of the project. On most projects, a 20 percent increase in the project cost would be considered poor performance. For the client’s project team, who were accustomed to complex projects with a large number of unknown issues that increase the final cost of the project, a 20 percent overrun in cost was not unusual. Even though the project was 20 percent over budget, the client was happy. Client satisfaction is often tied to Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org 9 expectations about project performance. Identifying and managing those expectations is a primary responsibility of the project manager. KEY TAKEAWAYS ? According to PMI, project management is the application of knowledge, skills, tools, and techniques to meet project requirements. ? The role of the client is controversial. Some clients include meeting or exceeding their expectations as part of project management. ? Project scope is a document that defines the work required to complete the project successfully. EXERCISES 1. According to PMI, project management is the application of knowledge, ________, tools, and techniques to meet project requirements. 2. According to Meredith and Mantel, a project should ____ __ ______ (three words) the expectations of the client. 3. If someone had asked you to define project management before you read this section, how would you have defined it? How did your definition differ from the PMI definition? 4. What aspect of project management was omitted from the PMI definition that is included in the definition proposed by Meredith and Mantel? If you were on the PMI decision-making body, would you vote to include it? Explain your choice. 5. What is meant by the statement “The response of the client to the events of the project may be counterintuitive”? Client Expectations Compare and contrast the highway and biotech examples previously described. Suggest an approach that might have prevented client disappointment in the highway project. Include the following in your answer: Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org 10 ? What are the differences between the two projects? Provide a bulleted list. ? Identify the single most important difference between the two projects that affected client satisfaction. ? Suggest an approach to managing client expectations in the highway project that might have resulted in meeting or exceeding expectations rather than disappointment. [1] Project Management Institute, Inc., A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK Guide), 4th ed. (Newtown Square, PA: Project Management Institute, Inc., 2008), 6. [2] Jack R. Meredith and Samuel J. Mantel, Jr., Project Management: A Managerial Approach (Hoboken, NJ: Wiley, 2006), 8. [3] Russell W. Darnall, The World’s Greatest Project (Newtown Square, PA: Project Management Institute, Inc., 1996), 48–54. [4] Russell W. Darnall, The World’s Greatest Project (Newtown Square, PA: Project Management Institute, Inc., 1996), 48–54. 1.2 Project Defined LEARNING OBJECTIVES 1. Describe two defining characteristics of a project. 2. Organize projects within projects. The Project Management Institute (PMI) defines a project by its two key characteristics. All projects are temporary and undertaken to create a product, service, or result that is unique. [1]These two simple concepts create a work environment that mandates different Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org 11 management approach from that used by an operations manager, whose work is oriented toward continuous improvement of existing processes over longer periods of time. A project manager needs a different set of skills to both define and successfully execute temporary projects. Because projects are temporary, they have a defined beginning and end. Project managers must manage start-up activities and project closeout activities. The processes for developing teams, organizing work, and establishing priorities require a different set of knowledge and skills because members of the project management team recognize that it is temporary. They seldom report directly to the project manager and the effect of success or failure of the project might not affect their reputations or careers the same way that the success or failure of one of their other job responsibilities would. The second characteristic of a project, the delivery of a unique product, service, or result, also changes the management approach to the work. A project manager must take time to understand the deliverables of a project, develop a plan for producing the deliverables in the time available, and then execute that plan. Projects are also defined within the context of larger projects as the following example illustrates. National Energy Plan The National Energy Technology Laboratory laid out a plan for a national energy policy that had a clear and identifiable outcome—providing reliable, affordable, and environmentally sound energy. [2] The details of this plan will be revised and updated, but the general goals are likely to remain unchanged. To accomplish these goals, the project requires the development of new technologies, complex scheduling and cost control, coordination of a large number of subcontractors, and skillful stakeholder management. Development of each of the major components became a project for the winning contractors within the larger project of providing reliable, affordable, and environmentally Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org 12 sound energy. Contractors for cleaner use of fossil fuels, conservation efforts, and development of renewable energy sources would manage major projects. Each project has to develop new technologies, manage a large number of subcontractors, and manage the stakeholders at the Department of Energy. Each subcontractor or work unit becomes a project for that organization. The project is defined by the scope of work. In the energy policy, the scope of work included all activities associated with reducing use of fossil fuels and reliance on imported energy. Using our definition that a project is a temporary endeavor that creates a unique product or service, implementation of the energy policy would be a project that consists of other projects, such as development of the following: ? Wind power ? Solar power ? Electricity transmission ? Electricity storage ? New nuclear reactor design and installation ? Other renewable energy sources ? Biofuels ? Electric vehicles ? Nonpolluting use of coal and natural gas ? Environmental protection KEY TAKEAWAYS ? All projects are temporary and undertaken to create a product, service, or result. ? Projects can contain smaller projects. EXERCISES 1. The project scope is the _____ required to complete the project successfully. 2. According to PMI, all projects are ________ and undertaken to create a product or service that is unique. Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org 13 3. Projects can contain ___________ projects. 4. What are two defining characteristics of a project that distinguish it from a process? 5. If you were planning to move from your current apartment or home to another location, would this qualify as a project? Explain your answer. Projects within Projects Choose a large public works project such as the construction of a new high school. Identify at least five phases to this project that could be treated as projects within a project. Specifically state how each project meets the definition of a project, and describe the product, service, or result of each project and why it is temporary. [1] Project Management Institute, Inc., A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK Guide), 4th ed. (Newtown Square, PA: Project Management Institute, Inc., 2008), 5. [2] National Energy Technology Laboratory, “Reliable, Affordable, and Environmentally Sound Energy for America’s Future,” The Energy Lab, 2001, http://www.netl.doe.gov/publications/press/2001/nep/nep.html(accessed June 18, 2009). 1.3 Project Context LEARNING OBJECTIVES 1. Identify the effect of organization type on time horizons. 2. Compare project management and operations management. 3. Describe the organizational options for managing projects. The project is affected by the type of organization in which the project is conducted and how the organization is organized to manage projects. Organizational Priorities Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org 14 Organizations fulfill a societal role to meet economic, religious, and governance functions. Local factories, churches, and hospitals are all organizations that provide some social or community need. Factories create wealth and jobs, churches provide spiritual and common social needs for communities, and government organizations provide regulations and services that allow for an orderly society. These organizations have different v
